International Scientific Collaboration Research Articles

The role of thematic specialization in international scientific collaboration: the case of Chagas research

Abstract Scientists are increasingly specializing to manage the vast knowledge bases within their domains, making knowledge-sharing strategies essential for scientific progress. Among these strategies, international scientific collaboration has increased markedly. We analyse the role of thematic specialization as one of its drivers in the context of Chagas research, a neglected disease. Since there is a strong research tradition in Latin America on this topic, it is an interesting context to study centre-periphery research dynamics. Using a novel bibliometric database on Chagas research during 1990–2019, we exploit its panel structure in a gravity-type econometric model. The findings show that the degree of specialization and its proximity among partners boost joint publications. Both effects are particularly important for country dyads involving authors from the periphery linked to authors in the centre. This paper is the first empirical study to assess the role of specialization as a driver of international scientific collaboration.

The influence of collaborators and knowledge diversity on innovation performance of tourism and hospitality academia network

In the knowledge economy era, there is a growing global emphasis on the impact of international scientific collaboration networks (SCNs) on academic innovation. Based on a cross-level analysis perspective, this study constructs a dual-stage cross-level moderated mediation model and tests the hypotheses related to scientific collaboration, knowledge diversity, and innovation performance. The data were collected from the tourism and hospitality academia publications from 1983 to 2018, involving 79 groups of 303 academics from China. This study indicates that knowledge diversity positively mediates the relationship between the number of collaborators and tourism academics’ innovation performance. Furthermore, in complex SCNs, network relationship scale and team collaboration density have cross-level moderated effects on this process.

Digital health and mobile health: a bibliometric analysis of the 100 most cited papers and their contributing authors

Aim: This study aimed to identify and analyze the top 100 most cited digital health and mobile health (m-health) publications. It could aid researchers in the identification of promising new research avenues, additionally supporting the establishment of international scientific collaboration between interdisciplinary research groups with demonstrated achievements in the area of interest. Methods: On 30th August, 2023, the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) electronic database was queried to identify the top 100 most cited digital health papers with a comprehensive search string. From the initial search, 106 papers were identified. After screening for relevance, six papers were excluded, resulting in the final list of the top 100 papers. The basic bibliographic data was directly extracted from WOSCC using its “Analyze” and “Create Citation Report” functions. The complete records of the top 100 papers were downloaded and imported into a bibliometric software called VOSviewer (version 1.6.19) to generate an author keyword map and author collaboration map. Results: The top 100 papers on digital health received a total of 49,653 citations. Over half of them (n = 55) were published during 2013–2017. Among these 100 papers, 59 were original articles, 36 were reviews, 4 were editorial materials, and 1 was a proceeding paper. All papers were written in English. The University of London and the University of California system were the most represented affiliations. The USA and the UK were the most represented countries. The Journal of Medical Internet Research was the most represented journal. Several diseases and health conditions were identified as a focus of these works, including anxiety, depression, diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Conclusions: The findings underscore key areas of focus in the field and prominent contributors, providing a roadmap for future research in digital and m-health.

The influence of geopolitics on research activity and international collaboration in science: the case of Russia

AbstractWe study the possible influences of the Russia-Ukraine War on Russia’s research productivity and international collaboration in science. For this purpose, we introduce and apply two recently developed indicators of relative intensity and balance in international collaboration. To see whether longitudinal trends have changed recently, we combine a long-term perspective based on annual updates since the year 2000 with a short-term perspective based on monthly updates since the beginning of 2022. The clearest change is that the productivity of Russian science, as measured within Web of Science, has dramatically decreased after several years of growth. There is also a clear decline in the degree of international collaboration in fields of research that heavily rely on large multinational infrastructures established through state agreements. In other fields, however, the degree of international collaboration is more stable. The general decline in Russian science seems to be more driven by internal factors than by loss of partnerships abroad.

Vaccine Science Diplomacy and “The Phenomenon of Man”

The central tenets of international scientific collaborations leading to the development, testing, and the equitable distribution vaccines to combat poliomyelitis, smallpox, COVID-19, and other devasting infections, first accelerated in the mid-twentieth century. The genesis of vaccine science diplomacy also coincides with the publication of Le Phénomène Humain ( The Phenomenon of Man) shortly after the death of its author, the French Jesuit priest and scientist, Dr. Teilhard de Jardin. Several tenets of Teilhard's posthumous essay, including our collective consciousness, and the “conjugated faces” of science and religion, are relevant to a modern vaccine diplomacy framework, even if Teilhard may not have specifically addressed vaccines in his writings. This could also include the potential for arriving at an “omega point” through international scientific collaboration and joint vaccine development, while simultaneously avoiding the destructive forces of anti-vaccine or anti-science activism. Collaborations between the Vatican, Catholic research universities and institutions, and leaders of the Catholic-majority nations in Africa, Asia, and Latin America in an integrated framework might accelerate these activities as they apply to both pandemic threats and neglected diseases of poverty.

Enhancing international collaboration in science, technology, and innovation to achieve sustainable development goals

Abstract This paper develops a framework for policymakers supporting sustainable development through international collaboration in science, technology, and innovation (STI). The approach can be applied to derive the national policy strategy for international collaboration in STI. The contribution focuses on the case of Germany in the field of food and agriculture. Accordingly, considering Germany’s current strategic approach for international collaboration in STI, an evidence-based tool for priority setting in the selection of potential partners and technology fields is developed and implemented. More specifically, the approach assesses the opportunity environment for international STI collaboration of Germany with potential partners using patent and economic indicators to capture technological capabilities, technological demand, economic relevance of food, and agriculture in national economies as well as technological and export specialization in food and agriculture. The results present policy strategies enhancing sustainable development.

Arctic Regional Governance: Actors and Transformations

This thematic issue analyzes recent and ongoing changes in Arctic regional governance in new geopolitical, security, and socio-economic contexts. It places current challenges in the Arctic within a historical context, aspiring to identify solutions, and enhances our understanding of modern processes. It presents three perspectives on Arctic regional governance: the first focuses on the challenges to Arctic environmental governance (marine living resources and Arctic seals); the second looks at the role of large nation-states, such as Russia and China, in Arctic regional governance; and the third one analyses the challenges posed to Indigenous people—in Russia, Finland, and Canada. Many overlapping themes are developed in the articles: historical lessons (e.g., from the Cold War period), challenges to the inclusiveness of environmental governance, and the role of cross-border diffusion and learning. New challenges to Arctic regional governance in the context of the war in Ukraine affect environmental governance, international scientific collaboration, and the lives of Indigenous people. Yet we know little about the depth of these recent transformations. This thematic issue aims to fill in at least some of the outlined gaps.

"Inherently Limited by Our Imaginations": Health Anxieties, Politics, and the History of the Climate Crisis

ABSTRACT: As global warming became a cause of concern in the 1980s, researchers and climate activists initially paid little attention to the possible health effects of a warmer world. This changed quickly between 1985 and 1989, when scientists working on contracts with the US Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency extrapolated from existing knowledge about the impact of weather on health to speculate about how global warming would impact health. However, they downplayed the impact of their contributions by highlighting the uncertainty in their models and the adaptability of human societies. Since that time, physicians and other health scientists have maintained a steady drumbeat of warnings about the health effects of global warming. They have published widely in the medical literature and participated actively in international scientific collaborations. Their research has significantly increased the breadth and depth of climate-health science and shown that measurable impacts of global warming have already begun. But as the many climate crises of 2023 show, action against global warming remains inadequate. Is it still reasonable to hope that health advocacy will incite communities and politicians to act? The history of climate and health advocacy reveals many obstacles that must be overcome.

INFN and the evolution of distributed scientific computing in Italy

INFN has been running a distributed infrastructure (the Tier-1 at Bologna-CNAF and 9 Tier-2 centres) for more than 20 years which currently offers about 150000 CPU cores and 120 PB of space both in tape and disk storage, serving more than 40 international scientific collaborations. This Grid-based infrastructure was augmented in 2019 with the INFN Cloud: a production quality multi-site federated Cloud infrastructure, composed by a core backbone, and which is able to integrate other INFN sites and public or private Clouds as well. The INFN Cloud provides a customizable and extensible portfolio offering computing and storage services spanning the IaaS, PaaS and SaaS layers, with dedicated solutions to serve special purposes, such as ISO-certified regions for the handling of sensitive data. INFN is now revising and expanding its infrastructure to tackle the challenges expected in the next 10 years of scientific computing adopting a “cloud-first” approach, through which all the INFN data centres will be federated via the INFN Cloud middleware and integrated with key HPC centres, such as the pre-exascale Leonardo machine at CINECA. In such a process, which involves both the infrastructures and the higher level services, initiatives and projects such as the "Italian National Centre on HPC, Big Data and Quantum Computing" (funded in the context of the Italian "National Recovery and Resilience Plan") and the Bologna Technopole are precious opportunities that will be exploited to offer advanced resources and services to universities, research institutions and industry. In this paper we describe how INFN is evolving its computing infrastructure, with the ambition to create and operate a national vendorneutral, open, scalable, and flexible "datalake" able to serve much more than just INFN users and experiments.

INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION: BENEFITS AND CHALLENGES

A broad range of teamwork styles and practices characterizes the present state of science. Working together across organizational and cultural boundaries widens the horizons of scientific discovery. Collaborative research initiatives that span international borders frequently yield results that surpass the accomplishments of individual teams working alone. Collaboration among scientists is an essential aspect of the advancement of all scientific disciplines, particularly in the field of clinical medicine. Cultural and international diversity involvement in projects can be advantageous for scientific progress. However, it also brings specific difficulties, potential hazards, and drawbacks. Some of the significant difficulties identified are related to the physical distance between people and the variations in culture, language, and career level. This review analyzes the benefits and challenges associated with international scientific collaboration and strategies for effective collaboration.

Science Diplomacy Model in Algeria and Prospects for Bilateral Scientific Cooperation with Russia

Introduction. Science diplomacy is gaining increasing significance in expanding international science and technology cooperation. Algeria serves as an example of this trend, drawing the attention of numerous influential players in the international community. Establishing relations with them requires Algerian diplomacy to be flexible and capable of aligning its diverse interests. The research aims to identify the main actors in Algerian science diplomacy, determine the optimal forms of cooperation between Russia and Algeria, and outline the prospects for future cooperation. Methods. Through observation, comparison, and description methods, the authors have outlined the evolution of science diplomacy and provided examples of the most successful projects involving Algeria. Results and Discussion. The authors have developed a model from their research that clearly illustrates the key actors in Algeria's science diplomacy and their interactions on both national and international stages. The analysis of publication activity has revealed areas of cooperation between Russia and Algeria. Conclusion. To effectively address modern challenges such as climate change, water shortage, local military conflicts, and emerging diseases, it is crucial to foster productive partnerships among scientists, politicians, and diplomats. When examining Algeria's international scientific collaborations with other nations, it becomes clear that the country prioritizes its partnership with China. Algeria has numerous joint initiatives with the European Union, a longstanding relationship with France, and has established ties with the United States through the Algerian diaspora. Russia and Algeria share a mutual interest in collaborative research and development in fields such as mechanical engineering, computer technology, physics, and astronomy. Higher education cooperation between Russia and Algeria can facilitate the training of research and academic personnel, the establishment of professional networks, and the advancement of research programs and projects.

Assessment of Sanctions against Russian Science by Foreign Researchers: Diversity of Approaches

Introduction. The introduction of restrictive measures (sanctions) against Russian science, aimed at preventing Russia's participation in international scientific collaboration in both bilateral and multilateral formats, has become a prominent feature of modern international relations. For the first time in many years, international collaboration in various scientific fields has encountered significant political and economic constraints, leading to Russia's withdrawal from joint programs and projects with key partner states in the scientific sphere. The study's significance lies in the necessity to develop a theory related to this type of sanctions, given their unprecedented nature. A comprehensive understanding is needed, reflecting foreign scientists' views on the sanctions: whether they deem them justified and if they are willing to continue cooperation in any capacity. This will become a basis for modifying Russia's science and technology policy in the context of international cooperation. The subject of the study is the range of approaches foreign experts have toward the structure, scale, and implications of sanctions against Russian science. Object: Conceptual systematization of foreign researchers' perceptions regarding the phenomenon of anti-Russian sanctions in the scientific field. Tasks: identify the reasons behind the increased interest of foreign researchers and experts in the issue of international sanctions against Russian science; assess the level of consensus within the global scientific community regarding the need for such sanctions; identify the cause of bias among supporters of anti-Russian sanctions in the scientific field; determine the extent of foreign analysts' interest in the impact of sanctions on both Russian and global science; identify the pragmatic aspects of the current model of sanctions against Russian science. Degree of topic development: This type of research has not yet been conducted in either Russian or foreign science. Methods. General scientific methods (analysis and synthesis, abstraction and generalization, comparison), systemic and structural-functional approaches were used along with specialized scientific methods, such as discourse analysis, meta-analysis, and stochastic factor analysis technique. Result and Discussion. The article identifies three groups of approaches, along with their underlying arguments concerning the category of sanctions under consideration: radical, moderate, and liberal. The author demonstrates the predominance of a moderate approach, which aligns with official decisions to sever institutional scientific cooperation with Russia while permitting personal contacts. Conclusion. The international research community, aiming to gain a comprehensive understanding of the impact of sanctions against Russian science on Russia and the rest of the world, pursues two objectives. The first objective is to identify strategies for enhancing the effectiveness of sanctions and justifying their necessity while mitigating their negative impact on global science. The second objective is to find effective strategies for implementing scientific sanctions, which could potentially be applied against other countries in the future. Considering the positions and approaches of foreign researchers toward the phenomenon of anti-Russian scientific sanctions is crucial not only for developing the theory of scientific sanctions but also for shaping the concept of Russian science and technology policy under new circumstances. The novelty of this study lies in its first-ever attempt in both Russian and foreign scientific literature to conceptualize the range of foreign expert discourse, which is characterized by diverse views and approaches toward sanctions applied to Russian science. The article contributes to the relevant field of research, specifically the theory of international sanctions in the scientific sphere, by arguing for the need to complement the analysis of the objective content of sanctions with an analysis of their subjective evaluation by the expert community.

Decolonizing Botany: Indonesia, UNESCO, and the Making of a Global Science.

Decolonization created new opportunities for international scientific research collaboration. In Indonesia this began in the late 1940s, as Indonesian scientists and officials sought to remake the formerly colonial botanical gardens in the city of Bogor into an international research center. Indonesia sponsored the Flora Malesiana project, a flora of all of island Southeast Asia. This project was formally centered in Bogor, Indonesia, with participation from tropical botanists from around the world. The international orientation of Indonesian science led to the establishment of one of UNESCO's Field Science Co-operation Offices in Jakarta, and to a period of close collaboration between Indonesian botanists and UNESCO. This paper examines the importance of UNESCO's Humid Tropics research program, which initiallyprovided further opportunities for Indonesian botanists to participate in international scientific networks. The paper concludes by showing that the Humid Tropics program led to the slow erosion of Indonesian agency and authority over tropical botany, and the assertion of Western control and management over tropical botany research.

Brazilian regions and international scientific collaboration

There is little information on the differences between Brazilian regions regarding the quantity and quality of North-South and South-South scientific collaboration. Data from 2012 to 2021 was collected in InCites. Variance, principal components, discriminant and canonical analyses were carried out. Regional differences for publishing indicators are highly variable. Brazilian first, last or corresponding authors tend to publish in journals in quartiles 3 or 4 (poorer quality). These tend to be poorly cited, have a lower percentage of documents cited and have fewer publications in hybrid journals. Collaborations with industry tend to have higher citation impact. While the percentage of documents in open access journals positively affected the impact of North-South collaboration (NSC), it negatively affected South-South collaboration (SSC). Publishing in hybrid journals was important for increasing the impact factor in SSC. Factors such as article processing charges and open access should be considered when financing international collaboration. The inequalities between Brazilian regions for international collaborations tend to be numerical and not necessarily qualitative.

Exploring the impact of geopolitics on the environmental Kuznets curve research

AbstractEnvironmental Kuznets curve (EKC) is one of the key theories of economic and environmentally sustainable development. Has the change in geopolitics in recent years affected the international collaboration in the study of the EKC? Based on the publications on the EKC included in the Web of Science, a case study of recent changes in China–US collaboration on the EKC is conducted to explore the impact of geopolitical changes on international collaborative research on sustainable development. The results show that (1) The EKC is a global study, and countries around the world have made more efforts, among which China, the United States, Turkey, Malaysia, England and other countries have made the most contributions in the global literature database and are the countries with the most development potential in this field. (2) International collaboration between China and the United States in this field has gradually increased, and scientific research collaboration between the two countries has increased under the influence of geopolitical conflicts, and collaboration has shown the characteristics of lasting stability. (3) China and the United States exhibit divergent international collaboration patterns, with Pakistan being China's foremost partner in this domain, while China serves as the US’ primary collaborator. Furthermore, China demonstrates a significantly higher volume of independently published works compared with the United States, highlighting the strengthening of China's scientific research capabilities. The number of countries collaborating internationally with China shows a different upward trend than in the United States across the three data sets set in this paper. (4) In the field of EKC hot research, China and the United States have maintained good international partnerships with other countries, and are the preferred countries for scientific research collaboration in other countries in the world. It can be seen from this that international scientific research collaboration for sustainable development represented by the EKC has shown relative stability, and geopolitical changes have not had a significant impact on international collaborative research for sustainable development.

The role of local colleagues in establishing international scientific collaboration: Social capital in emerging science systems

Abstract International collaborations are important for developing science systems. Using a dataset of South African university scientists, we ask whether social capital relevant to international collaboration held by one scientist spills over to local colleagues. Distinguishing between different ways of acquiring foreign ties, we find that 20% of our cases resemble the most-studied form of international collaborations, via the unique ties of an individual with specific characteristics, e.g., foreign research training. In all other cases, both personal and local peers’ international social capital is relevant for foreign tie formation. Underlining the systemic functioning of science, international social capital is activated through scientific collaboration among local scientists. The mediating effect of local scientific collaboration is present across all scientific fields and holds for scientists trained locally or abroad. Our findings thus imply that local collaboration is a relevant mechanism to strengthen international collaboration and the formation of international social capital.

İklim krizi ve iklim değişikliği araştırmalarının bibliyometrik analizi

Climate change is a worldwide issue that can influence the way of life of all living beings. This study aims to perform a bibliometric analysis of climate crisis and climate change scientific studies. Bibliometric analyses give an in-depth assessment of the literature's publications on the subject, the identification of scientific research trends on the subject, the evaluation of researcher collaboration, and the evaluation of significant issues. The study is qualitative research, and a bibliometric research method was used. The research data was first accessed on 04 August 2022 (Time: 14:34) from the "Web of Science" database as an online search. However, some data were revised on 18 July 2023 (Time: 15:00) using the same database in order to include up-to-date data in the study. The obtained data were transferred to VOSviewer software and analyzed. According to the survey, climate-related articles most used keywords include climate change, climate crisis, sustainability, environment, climate justice, and Anthropocene. Most of the studied papers are from many disciplines, such as environmental sciences, meteorology atmospheric studies, ecology, geosciences multidisciplinary, and environmental studies. When the publications on climate catastrophe are examined by country, the most cited countries are England, Canada, United States, Sweden, and Norway. As a result, international scientific collaboration and data exchange are critical for a successful battle against climate change and the climate crisis. Collaboration and information exchange between disciplines can result in more effective and inclusive solutions. Encouraging studies in other languages and knowing common terminology can help to promote global collaboration. The examination and assessment of scientific findings are vital in enhancing societal awareness and resilience, as well as in developing long-term policy

Establishing the Swiss Spinal Tumor Registry (Swiss-STR): a prospective observation of surgical treatment patterns and long-term outcomes in patients with primary and metastatic spinal tumors.

Tumors of the vertebral column consist of primary spinal tumors and malignancies metastasizing to the spine. Although primary spine tumors are rare, metastases to the spine have gradually increased over past decades because of aging populations and improved survival for various cancer subtypes achieved by advances in cancer therapy. Metastases to the vertebral column occur in up to 70% of cancer patients, with 10% of patients demonstrating epidural spinal cord compression. Therefore, many cancer patients may face spinal surgical intervention during their chronic illness; such interventions range from simple cement augmentation over decompression of neural elements to extended instrumentation or spinal reconstruction. However, precise surgical treatment guidelines do not exist, likely due to the lack of robust, long-term clinical outcomes data and the overall heterogeneous nature of spinal tumors. Objectives of launching the Swiss Spinal Tumor Registry (Swiss-STR) are to collect and analyze high-quality, prospective, observational data on treatment patterns, clinical outcomes, and health-related quality of life (HRQoL) in adult patients undergoing spinal tumor surgery. This narrative review discusses our rationale and process of establishing this spinal cancer registry. A REDCap-based registry was created for the standardized collection of clinical, radiographic, surgical, histological, radio-oncologial and oncological variables, as well as patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs). We propose that the Swiss-STR will inform on the effectiveness of current practices in spinal oncology and their impact on patient outcomes. Furthermore, the registry will enable better categorization of the various clinical presentations of spinal tumors, thereby facilitating treatment recommendations, defining the socio-economic burden on the healthcare system, and improving the quality of care. In cases of rare tumors, the multi-center data pooling will fill significant data gaps to yield better understanding of these entities. Finally, our two-step approach first implements a high-quality registry with efficient electronic data capture strategies across hospital sites in Switzerland, and second follows with potential to expand internationally, thus fostering future international scientific collaboration to further push the envelope in cancer research.

International scientific collaboration in the research system: dynamics, opportunities and challenges for Kazakhstan

Introduction. International scientific collaboration and science diplomacy are essential components of international relations and international law, facilitating cross-cultural interactions at various political, societal, social, humanitarian, and technical levels. The sphere of international scientific collaboration, increasingly intertwined with science diplomacy, holds significant relevance in the realm of global relations and international jurisprudence. It fosters multifaceted exchanges spanning political, societal, humanitarian, and technical domains. In the current epoch, often termed the «International Era,» the dynamics of international scientific collaboration assume heightened importance. This era marks a distinct phase in the evolutionary trajectory of global science, progressing from individual, institutional, to national stages. Methodology. This study delves into the nature and scope of international scientific cooperation involving Kazakhstani scientific entities and researchers. It employs an analytical framework grounded in epistemology and gnoseology, complemented by statistical and correlational analysis. The investigation categorizes the diverse forms and types of international scientific engagements, adopting a synectics approach. It introduces the concept of «commensalism» as a contemporary model of international collaboration in the Kazakhstani scientific context. The paper confronts challenges associated with the saturation of information in scientific publications and introduces the notion of the «dark matter of science.» It proposes hypotheses on the structures, targeted outcomes, and methodologies pertinent to international scientific cooperation. The research employs scientometric data, exemplified through national and academic research scenarios, to establish correlations. It interprets Pearson, Spearman, and Kendall correlation coefficients within the context of scientometric parameters, focusing on publication activities in international scientific collaboration. Results. The study unveils critical insights into the dynamics of international scientific collaboration and its economic implications. Key findings include a positive correlation between the number of joint publications and the H-index across various research fields, with notable variations in research funding and commercialization potential. Engineering, Physics & Astronomy, and Medical Sciences emerge as leading disciplines in terms of joint publication volume, H-index, and economic parameters. In contrast, Social Sciences show a lower level of international collaboration and economic impact, suggesting a more localized research focus. The data also highlights significant economic viability in fields like Materials Science and Environmental Sciences, driven by global emphasis on sustainability and technological advancements. Scientific Novelty. The novelty of this research lies in its comprehensive analysis of the economic aspects of international scientific collaboration, especially in the context of Kazakhstani research. It bridges the gap in understanding how international collaboration, especially with scientifically advanced countries, impacts not only academic metrics like the H-index but also economic factors such as research funding and commercialization. This study is one of the first to quantitatively analyze these aspects in the Kazakhstani research context, offering a new perspective on the economic benefits and challenges of global scientific partnerships. Practical Significance. This research holds significant practical implications for policy-makers, researchers, and academic institutions in Kazakhstan. By identifying the fields with the highest economic benefits from international collaboration, it provides a strategic roadmap for allocating resources and prioritizing research areas. The findings can guide policy decisions to enhance Kazakhstan’s integration into the global research community, optimize research funding allocation, and harness the commercial potential of scientific advancements. Additionally, it offers insights for individual researchers to strategically collaborate internationally for maximizing their academic impact and economic benefits.

The globalization of science diplomacy in the early 1970s: a historical exploration

Abstract The early 1970s brought fundamental transitions in international scientific collaboration that significantly affected the international relations in global patterns that are still relevant today. This article uses a multi-perspective approach to argue that the underlying condition for the globalization of science diplomacy was the increasing participation of recently independent countries in international technoscientific affairs, examining critical research areas, including space exploration, oceanography, nuclear technoscience, the environmental sciences, and health and population studies. Themes emerged at that time that continue to characterize what we term ‘Global Science Diplomacy’: multipolarity, resistance and agency, lack of global consensus, regional alliances and interests, and the centrality of the United Nations system to the conduct of transnational science. This survey is a first step in historical reflection on this phenomenon and shows that it was the emergence of the Global South in Science Diplomacy affairs that made Science Diplomacy global at the beginning of the 1970s.